Inclusivity in Education Aspects

Inclusivity in Education Aspects I will explain the political, economic, and social perspectives that surround inclusivity, reflect on my own professional practice and working environment, and identify the policies used, both nationally and locally. I will define my understanding of inclusivity, looking at the political ideology that surrounds inclusivity. Inclusivity is the understanding and providing for different capabilities, using diverse resources for students. Inclusivity is the understanding of students as individuals. It gives the opportunity for all students to become involved in classroom developments. All students should be given the chance to develop interests and experiences at their own pace and style of learning. No student should be discriminated against regarding colour, gender, sexual orientation, religion. For lecturers in todays society, it is extremely challenging to incorporate inclusivity with the students that have developed in the last 10 years of British culture. Students with learning difficulties such as ADHD, Aspergers, and Dyslexia were barely heard of until recent years. Each individual situation calls for totally unique handling of the student without excluding the remainder of the class. Research has identified that teachers may feel there could be barriers to inclusivity: Some of the thoughts are; Every student who attends college should be at a basic level of education before starting a course. The staff may not be prepared to meet the needs of the student The course and other students could be affected To balance some of these negative attitudes; All students have the potential to achieve Many students learn through interaction with others. Teachers make a difference (Idol, 1997) OFSTED published a report dispelling many of the negative thoughts that most of us had in the back of our mind. Ofsted say. An educationally inclusive school is one which the teaching and learning is one in which the teaching and learning, achievements attitudes and the well being of every young person matter. This shows not only in their performance, but also in the ethos and willingness to offer new opportunities to pupils who may have experienced pervious difficulties. This does not mean treating all pupils in the same way; rather, it involves taking account of pupils varied life experiences and needs (OFSTED) The start of Inclusion in Education dated back to the 1970 Education act which ended a practice to a minority of children being given the classification of unable to educate. It stopped classifying children with a learning disability unsuitable for school education. In the introduction of 1976 education act, the government looked at the local education authorities to amalgamate disabled students into so called ordinary schools in both England and Wales. This was never implemented! If it had been, disabled students were to be educated in ordinary schools unless it was impracticable due to excessive expenditure to the relevant educational body. 1978 saw the Warnock report on special education and at the time was the largest investigation into special education of disabled students being integrated into ordinary schools. He reported that the practice was good for some students but not for others. The report also stated that it was important for parents to have a view on their children and their educational process. In 1981 the education act, brought in disabled students to mainstream schools. This stated that other children would not be affected by the integration and resources available to them to assist. This act opened the doors to both disabled and young students from special schools sector to a mainstream school; the act was under much pressure from the professional bodies not to implement it, due to the overall effect on all the students. 1992 saw the audit commission and her majestys inspectorate look into a special needs provision for schools. One of the areas they found deficient was the way children with special needs were not being assessed very quickly and many statements were far too vague. In 1997, mainstream schools were becoming more inclusive with a new green paper on special education. 1998 brought in the human rights act stating no child shall be denied the right to education. The government pushed forward its plans to break down the barriers to help with learning and participation for 100% of students. The special education needs and disability act of 2001 came in and was used to repeal two previous provisos from 1996 regarding a disabled child going into mainstream school provided; it was compatible with the parents wishes and there was efficient education of other children. 2002 finally saw the Disability Discrimination act which gave access to education for both students and prospective students. The law also stated that you could not discriminate against a disabled person in admission arrangements. Local authorities also had to increase accessibility in terms of curriculum and the environment. Although this act was not solely for education it applied to everyone and was definitely a step in the right direction. All schools and colleges that have used these policies have seen an increase in levels of education rise from the early 1970s up to the present date. Before I could carry out my research relating to the organisation I am involved with, I needed to produce a PEST (Appendix 1) and SWOT (Appendix 2) analysis. Firstly looking into factors based around the industry looking into the political, economic, social and then technological issues which would affect us. Once this was complete I looked at the department in which I work, breaking the issues down into depth. Within the SWOT I looked at strengths, weakness, opportunities and threats. Within all of the topics funding policies, initiatives, weigh heavily, whether as a threat or Strength. With these acts in place my organisation have put together documentation in response from the governing bodies to help develop a clear understanding in the way we should help commit to inclusivity in education. The mission statement of my organisation is: City College is an inclusive, accessible college of further and higher education which provides high quality services to the range of diverse communities within the locality and the region which it serves. To this end, the college is committed to equality of regard and of opportunity for all, irrespective of age, disability, ethnic origin, gender, marital status, medical condition, religious belief, or sexual orientation. In its policies and practices the college will seek to enhance the self esteem of all those it serves and to provide a learning environment in which each individual is encouraged to fulfil her or his potential. The commitment to equality of regard and opportunity is a fundamental policy that pervades all college activities and is endorsed by the Governing Body. All members of the college community are expected to uphold the policy and to ensure that their actions embody the commitment. Some of the organisations policies for inclusion are: The commitment to equality of regard and opportunity is supported by the following: Code of Practice on Learning Difficulty and Disability (students) Code of Practice on Gender Discrimination (students) City college Race Equality Policy (staff/students) City college equality and diversity plan These codes are an integral part of the Equal Opportunities Policy. They ensure compliance with, respectively, the Special Education Needs and Disability Act 2001, the Disability Discrimination Act 1995, the Sex Discrimination Act 1975, and the Race Relations Act 1976. They also embody elements of good practice advocated in the Tomlinson Report 1996, Equality, and Diversity Guidance from the LSC and the codes of practice produced by the Commission for Racial Equality. Ofsted use a set of questions when examining Inclusion in schools and colleges. These are the questions on how a college should deal with the situation. Do all pupils get a fair deal at school? This relates to: what they get out of school, particularly their achievements; the opportunity to learn effectively, without interference and disruption; the respect and individual help they have from their teachers; their access to all aspects of the curriculum; the attention the school gives to their well-being and Whether they and their parents are happy with the school. How well does the school recognise and overcome barriers to learning? This is about: the schools understanding of how well different groups do in school; the steps taken to make sure that particular groups are not disadvantaged in school and to promote their participation and success; its strategies for promoting good relationships and managing behaviour; what the school does specifically to prevent and address racism, sexism and other forms of discrimination, and what it does about cases of discrimination that do occur. Do the schools values embrace inclusion and does its practice promote it? The clues are: how the values of the school are reflected in its curriculum, resources, communications, procedures and conduct; how people talk about and treat one another in the school; the leadership provided by senior staff and the consistency of staff behaviour; What the school intends and tries to do for people like me. Positive inclusion To enforce this statement, the college supports positive inclusion by enrolling any students, with the required qualifications, no matter what their learning capabilities are, however this will depend on whether it is practicable for the student and as long as it does not in any way effect the learning of the others in the class. In past years, discrimination may have taken place with students that showed signs of slower learning ability, therefore this is a positive development for inclusion in todays society. Entry to Employment, (E2E) groups are students with low entry requirements; however the potential is there, by assisting them with additional tuition, to raise their level of education, specifically in maths and English, to gain the relevant qualifications required for the future. To achieve this, the college offer a 22 week E2E course, alongside learning for a level 1 diploma in bricklaying, level 1 key skills in application of number and communication. Not all colleges offer E2E alongside this qualification. Negative Inclusion From the lecturers point of view this is a negative form of inclusion because the E2E qualification, is taught alongside the level 1 diploma and key skills, which is a method that other colleges do not employ due to overloading a group that originally in struggled at school when they were on the same footing as the rest of their class. At school the class would all have been working on the same subjects possibly at the same time. Here the group have come in and been told that they need to attend an extra afternoon to complete Entry to employment paperwork and adult literacy and numeracy classes. This would then be followed up with three days of Diploma work in theory and practical. Two other groups who have the entry qualifications only need to complete the diploma theory and practical content and complete key skills in the time scheduled. There are tools which can be used to help define a disability and help governing bodies and government find strategies in which to find the needs of disabled people. These are categorised as models of disability. The two which are commonly used for education are known as the Social Model and the Medical Model. When these models are correctly used, they will give a basic understanding of disability issues, such as services used and possibly ways of access to work. These models can see disabled people as dependant people in the community this may segregate them from others and force discrimination. This can lead to equality of human rights and the opposite of segregation which is integration. This does not mean one is better than the other but merely that each model can be used in different situations Firstly what passes for a disability? People who have impairment and may experience some form of exclusion as a result are disabled people. People may wear glasses or contact lenses. These may not be discriminated against where as people who are deaf and wear hearing aids sometimes are, and are discriminated against with barriers in communication. People who are included with a disability such as: Physical impairments Deaf people, Blind people People with AIDS and HIV (chronic Illness) Learning difficulties Mental health issues / behavioural problems People who also have hidden impairments such as; Mental stress Dyslexia Epilepsy Language impairments Disfigured people Diabetes http://attitudes2disability.wordpress.com/category/medical-model-vs-social-model/ Medical Model The medical model is used by the health organisation and was devised by doctors. The medical model focuses on the source of the problem on the patient (student) and presumes that the problems will be found with the student. With a more superior method you can go a step further and look into the students personal background and how it could affect their everyday lives. It is basically there to find a cure; it can occasionally fail as it says disabled people are not necessarily sick or cannot be improved by remedial treatment (connectings for community leadership, 2007) Social Model The social model was design for disabled people after the medical model. This particular model has had an impact on the anti discrimination legislation it also recognises that some people have different abilities ranging from sensory, physical ,or psychological variations . This was later extended to include all disabled people including those with learning difficulties and mental health problems. This model can focus on any changes needed in society. Physical structures such as elevators, or ramps would also focus under this model. Medical Model (Thinking) Socal Model (Thinking) The child is damaged Child is valued labelling Strenghts and needs defined by selfand others Diagnosis Identify barriers and developsolutions Impairment becomes focus of attention Outcome -based programme designed Assessment, monitoring,programmes of theropy imposed Resources are madee available to ordinary services Segregation and alternative services Training for parents and professionals Ordinary needs put on hold Relationship nurtured Re-entry if normal enough or permanent exclusion Diversity welcomed , child is included Society remains unchanged Society evolves My second area for topic was looking at Inclusivity of women in construction Inclusivity Fact file: Almost 200,000 women work in construction. Women have been working in construction since the Middle Ages Women account for around 1% of trades people and 11.6% of those working in design and management occupations (Jon Land, 2009) A report From the CIOB (chartered institute of building) back in 2001 indicated Women in the UK construction industry currently accounted for fewer than ten per cent of the UK construction workforce, this reflected their under-representation in an industry that fails to attract and retain women. The research was important because it raises the debate about the advancement in the subject of inclusivity, assessing the barriers faced by women and discussed means of redressing the balance to improve the inclusivity of the industry. Expanding inclusivity, which includes, attracting and hopefully keeping women in construction, is a key priority for the UK. The construction industry in countries facing skill and labour shortages could perhaps combat some of their problems by increasing the number of women in the workforce. This would be a resourceful and positive use for inclusion. In summary, the important issues were: Attracting more women to the industry by not only focusing on young entrants but also returnees to work following a career break, and those who seek a career change. Retention of women in the workforce Understanding the extent of women employed in the whole industry, what are they looking for from the industry? For a number of years women have been moving into professional work such as law, accountancy, and medicine, all of which require high-level qualifications and are considered attractive because of the perceived high level of class status. Today, numbers of women and men are almost equal in these sectors. However, occupational areas such as engineering and the construction trades have not seen a comparable change in the make-up of the workforce. Womens labour market participation has increased over recent years and their employment rates have risen, whereas mens participation in the labour market has declined slightly. Girls now perform better than boys in education and in getting qualifications (Hibbett, and Meager 2003)). With Women making up 50 per cent of the population, more than 46 per cent are currently in the labour market. More than half of the entrants in higher education in colleges are women. Yet in the construction Industry, the percentage of women involved is as little as 11%. This figure includes, Architects, Quantity Surveyors, Site Organisers and Bricklayers. Construction needs variety in it for growth and development. Demand for construction had experienced growth over the past eight years, due to the expanding world population and the necessity for accommodation and a buoyant economy. However, the recent effects of the credit crunch have seriously put the industry, and many others, into a decline. The industry could not afford a skills shortage at such a time because when the economy rallies and improves, the need for skilled workforce will be of paramount importance. Construction and engineering learners are 90 per cent men, whilst hairdressing and beauty therapy are dominated by women who make up 91 per cent of learners. The exceptions are in higher education, which are dominated by male students in areas such as, computer science (80 per cent), engineering and technology (85 per cent). Female-dominated subjects include education, and beauty, although most of this research was based between 2001 -2004, surveys have been carried out as recently as 2009 by the CIOB and their conclusion was that :-(Sonia Gurjao, 2001) A number of factors have contributed to the industrys skill shortages. One of the most significant reasons is the lack of new recruits joining the industry. At the end of 2007, ConstructionSkills predicted that the industry would require 88,000 new recruits a year between 2009 and 2013; this figure has now been more than halved to 42,000 per year. There are a number of reasons for people not wanting to join the industry; many relate to the general perception of it being predominately a career for white males, with long hours and little pay. (CIOB, 2009) It is this perception that dissuades women and ethnic minorities from joining the industry. Research has shown that many women believe the industry is a competitive and threatening environment that rejects women and hinders their progression. This I feel is not the case, Bricklayers can take home as much as  £28,000 when fully qualified. A working day is usually between 8.00am and 5.30pm with most companies now finishing work on Fri day afternoons around 3.30pm. The hours are not dissimilar to a retail occupation .As for a career for white males, this will depend on the area of the country; in the midlands there is a larger ethnic representation. The trade has definitely built up a reputation as a dominantley male industry due to one of the main contributing factors being the percieved impression that men are lecherous to women . This is not necessarily the case, many women would not wish to enter the construction industry at trade level because of the level of bad language or the inuendos they assume most men would use. Assumptions (Appendix 3) can be very negative. Other industries however, such as factories, can be as biased and have contant use of bad language . With equality being a very relavant point, I have worked in a florists from time to time and found women to be more open with what they say about the opposite sex and graphic .I found this more off putting than working on any site. Although the industry has done more in recent years to attract women and ethnic minorities, this is still a great challenge; despite more females taking construction courses, retention rates are still comparatively low once women start working. (CIOB, 2009) In our organisation, over the last two years, we have taken on six females in Carpentry and Brickwork with a total of 120 students overall .This works out to a total of 5% of female students in our department. Of the 5%, one has just enrolled, one has completed the course, two are carrying on to the second year and the other two dropped out in the first year. The industry needs to become more inclusive if it hopes to reduce skill shortages, and accept the wealth of knowledge and experience that women and ethnic minorities can offer. (CIOB, 2009) In researching for ways to develop an understanding for why women are not in construction, I realised that women are mainly isolated in the construction workplace. Unlike men, who are usually in substantially larger groups or gangs, such as Carpentry or Bricklaying. Looking further afield, many women travel to the Middle East to take up jobs in Architecture and Project Management, which is a more sociable side to the industry . Although our government express an interest in bringing women into the construction industry little incentive seems to be brought in to help achieve it. Other countries however, are trying to change this, for example, in South Africa in 2006 six construction companies owned by women were given public works contracts as part of a government initative at giving women a start in the construction industry each contract was worth more than a million rand ( £75,300).. (times, 2006) Conclusion Hibbett, A. (W.E.U., DTI), Meager, .N, (IES) (2003) Key indicators of womens position in Britain: Findings from a recent comprehensive study of women in Britain commissioned by the Women and Equality Unit. National Statistics: Labour Market Trends 111(No. 10): 9

Counseling Self-Awareness

Funnily enough, doctors seem to be difficult patients. Some of them know that smoking is dangerous to their health yet they smoke nonetheless. The same is true with counselors. They seem to understand a lot of the problems of their patients and the people who ask advice from them. Yet, when it comes to their own issues and their own problems, they do not seem to be effective in following the very same advice that they would give to their clients if asked about the same problem. Counselors also have their own issues and their own personal problems. It may be some baggage from the past or some unresolved personal issues.Some of these issues may interfere with the way that counselors do their job. It would be very important therefore for counselors to be aware of themselves and their own issues if they were to become effective in dealing with themselves and their own issues so that they can prevent these issues from affecting their views on the issues being presented by their clients. P ersonal Assessment: Strengths I have my own strengths and my weaknesses. I recognize the importance of identifying these so that I can effectively deal with my clients and the advice and resolution that I can provide my clients would be effective.Objectivity in any situation is difficult to achieve most of the time. Emotions can cloud up the situation as well as the vested interests and even monetary considerations of people. Setting aside some of these considerations is a practice I have achieved over the past few years of training and practicing as a counselor. Even when I was a child, I already displayed a certain level of objectivity in my dealings with my playmates and my family. Objectivity, no matter what postmodernists and other critics may claim, is achievable up to a certain degree, although it cannot be done completely. I consider this as one of my strengths as a counselor.In the course of my counseling practice, I would encounter people with different lifestyle choices a nd different views from those that I espouse. If I allow myself to be affected by such views I would not be an effective counselor. Yet, if I am able to practice objectivity, I can analyze my clients’ situation and predicaments from their own points of view and try to present solutions that are workable and acceptable to my clients. Another strength that I have when it comes to dealing with the counseling profession is my ability to separate my own principles and my own views from that of my clients.I know that I am not able to accomplish this perfectly yet I can set aside my prejudices and my biases. In this regard, I sometimes feel like a priest behind the confessional, unable to see the counselee but can hear him or her perfectly and deal with the issues at hand. Although different schools of thought may differ in their views regarding empathizing and showing excessive emotions to counselees, I can also keep a very tight rein with my emotions if needed. Likewise, I can als o show emotions sympathizing with the client if I feel that this is needed by the client.I am careful, however, in dealing with persons from the opposite sex, especially in regards to emotions because of the awkward situations that it may engender. As a counselor, I want to avoid complications as it would be very difficult to be involved in such cases. When dealing with the opposite sex, I have created a set of rules for myself, which have helped me in my practice and in avoiding difficult situations that are difficult to get away from. Such set of rules is therefore very important for me and I consider this as my strength. Personal Assessment: My WeaknessesThere are some disappointments that I think I haven’t gotten over yet. When I was younger, I wanted to become a medical doctor and study at John Hopkins. However, due to financial constraints and some complications in my own academic performance, I did not manage to achieve this. Yet, I have completed the requirements of P sychology and became a counselor instead. When I look back at this dream, I still remember the regret and the disappointment I had when I discovered that I did not make it to John Hopkins. The disappointment has faded yet the pangs of regret and pain are still there.It seems that I also need to spend some time in order to finally get over this. In addition to this, I also have some baggage because of my relationship with my dad. I was not really close to my dad when I was growing up. He was conservative and too much of a disciplinarian for me to be close to him. As such, when I was younger, I both loved him and hated him at the same time. During the times that I felt that I hated him, I also felt guilty because I knew that I should not be feeling that way because he is my dad. Yet, I could not help it.The feelings were intense. Deep inside my heart, the anger developed because of what looked to me like neglect and his improper treatment of me and my mom. Surprisingly though, my youn ger sibling got a better kind of treatment from him. It seems he changed later in life. The anger and the pain, however, were etched deep within me and I might also need some time in order to sort through my emotions and deal with them. Thankfully, during the times that I talked with my mother, we managed to discuss our negative emotions and somehow managed to forgive my dad.It comes as no surprise though that I also have some unmet needs. In order for me to deal with these unmet needs, I usually write or if I could not write, I call my best friend and talk about my issues. My friend has been very faithful in listening to me. Although he is not a professional counselor as I am, he is nonetheless showing me some of the principles that I follow. When I am faced with my own problems I tend to scribble notes and brainstorm on paper the best course of action that I have to take.Sometimes, I do this with my clients and some of them have been taken aback when they saw me doing it. So I hav e had to restrain myself on several occasions on doing such. When I can no longer restrain myself though, I ask my client if it is okay to take down notes and scribble on my paper while he or she is talking. I have also received varied response to this. I tend to follow the same process in dealing with the problems of other people. That is why, I always have a handy notebook to help me deal with different problems. ConclusionIn my meetings with my counselees, I could not help but learn from them too. Whenever I listen to problems and discover that such problems echo my own, I tend to keep a check on myself and avoid dwelling on my own problems. If I do, I might get lost with my client’s own problem and that would create a problem with me. Thus, I tend to check myself every now and then. I have also written a note to myself in my own notebook to constantly remind me of the need to focus on my clients’ problems. Whenever I enter my office, I enter the professional sphere and I leave my personal issues behind.

Mohammed Morsi Essay

The Muslim Brotherhood’s Mohammed Morsi has become Egypt’s first freely elected president after a delayed announcement of the results of last weekend’s runoff. He beat former Prime Minister Ahmed Shafiq by more than almost 900,000 votes. Morsi secured 51.7% of the vote, compared to 48% for Shafiq. Mohammed Morsi heads the Freedom and Justice Party (FJP), the Muslim Brotherhood’s political arm. Mubarak appointed Shafik as prime minister in response to the protests against his regime. Shafik resigned a little more than a month later amid protests decrying him as a holdover from a discredited, ousted regime. Supports the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF): â€Å"SCAF is serious about power handover and is seeking to achieve the goals of the revolution. SCAF stands at an equal distance from all political and religious powers.† Parliamentary elections: the Muslim Brotherhood’s Freedom and Justice party seems set to emerge as the biggest winner, with some analysts estimating it will capture about 40% of seats in the new legislature. Al-Nour, a more conservative Salafist party, looks likely to secure second place. The Muslim Brotherhood (known in Arabic as al-Ikhwan al-Muslimeen) is Egypt’s oldest and largest Islamist organization. As the most organized opposition group following the ouster of former President Hosni Mubarak in 2011, the Brotherhood became the country’s dominant political force, winning a near majority of seats in the post-revolution parliament, and its candidate, Mohammed Morsi, winning the presidency. Some Egyptians are concerned over the group’s aim to establish a state ruled by sharia, or Islamic law, and ambiguity over its respect for human rights. Such concerns intensified after Morsi announced new sweeping powers for the presidency in late 2012 and a draft of theproposed constitution was published. The domestic political challenges also provide a difficult road for U.S.-Egypt relations, especially with regards to foreign aid. The Freedom and Justice Party (FJP), the political party of the Muslim Brotherhood, could not have come into being without the 25 January revolution. Up to that time, the Muslim Brotherhood (MB), Egypt’s most powerful Islamist organization, was not only denied the right to form parties, but also barred – at least legally – from political life. As a result, the group had to pay a heavy price in detentions and repression to practice politics under the rule of former President Hosni Mubarak. The group had been trying to get a foothold in the country’s political arena for decades but was met with entrenched opposition by the Mubarak regime, which tended to accommodate the Brotherhood, but only within strict limits. Now, after the 25 January uprising, the group’s political ambitions have resurged on an unprecedented scale. Officially founded in May 2011, the FJP says that it is committed to a modern state, democracy, women’s rights, and national unity. The FJP’s initial membership of nearly nine thousand included one thousand women and one hundred Copts. New members are subject to a probationary period of six months after which, and based on their performance record, they become eligible for permanent membership. The FJP—along with the Salafist Al-Nour—is among a very few Egyptian political parties that issue probationary membership Formed alliance with name of Democratic Alliance (Freedom and Justice) Al-Nour Party Established in the wake of the 25 January uprising, Al-Nour (â€Å"The Light†) Party is the largest of Egypt’s three licensed Salafist parties (the other two being Al-Asala and Al-Fadila Parties). It was established by Al-Da‘wa Al-Salafiyya (â€Å"The Salafist Call†), Egypt’s largest Salafist group, commonly known as Al-Daawa Movement. Al-Daawa started in Alexandria where it now enjoys a considerable following. Al-Nour Party was officially licensed in June 2011. Official registration is of paramount importance in Egypt at the present time, as the current election law limits the right to contest two-thirds of the seats of the upcoming parliament to a limited number of officially registered parties, including Al-Nour. Under the rule of former President Hosni Mubarak, the state generally did not allow for the formation of Islamist parties, but after the revolution many Islamist groups managed  to obtain official political party license. The Islamist Bloc is an electoral coalition formed by three Islamist political parties with the aim to integrate their efforts in the upcoming parliamentary elections. The Islamist Bloc is comprised of the Salafist Al-Nour and Al-Asala Parties, as well as the Building and Development Party, the latter of which was founded by the Islamic Group (Al-Gamaa Al-Islamiya). Wafad party: Wafd Party is one of Egypt’s oldest liberal parties and is expected to play a significant role in the upcoming elections. With deposed President Hosni Mubarak’s ruling party officially disbanded, Wafd has emerged as an influential player in the political arena. The party commands the largest network that any political party in Egypt possesses today, covering major cities in twenty-four out of twenty-six Egyptian governorates. With a distinguished group of top Egyptian businessmen on its membership list, Al-Wafd stands out as one of the few established parties that do not face the same financial constraints that have historically challenged many of the country’s political parties. The party also enjoys a very strong presence in the media, thanks to its famous daily newspaper, its Internet portal, and a professional, well-equipped media department. Additionally, Wafd’s current leader Al-Sayed Al-Badawi is owner of Al-Hayat, one of Egypt’s top five television channels. Such are luxuries that very few Egyptian parties possess. Wafd’s history dates back to the beginning of party life under the monarchy, making it the oldest among existing Egyptian political parties. The name of the party is Arabic for â€Å"The Delegation,† and it references Saad Zaghloul’s attempt in 1919 to lead a popular delegation to the post-World War I Paris Peace Conference to demand independence for Egypt against the will of British occupation authorities. Threatened by the immense popular support that Zaghloul was able to garner for his mission, British authorities exiled the Egyptian nationalist leader along with members of the prospective delegation to Malta. This move instigated a mass uprising, which led to the 1919 Revolution. The Egyptian Bloc: The Egyptian Bloc consists of the Free Egyptians Party, the Egyptian Social Democratic Party and Al-Tagammu Party. The Bloc is often portrayed as a â€Å"secular-leaning† alliance that seeks to counterbalance the influence of the Muslim Brotherhoodin the upcoming elections, specifically the Brotherhood led Democratic Alliance’s electoral coalition. Members of the Bloc announced in early November that their partnership is not simply a short-term electoral coalition, but encompasses a long-term political alliance aimed at turning Egypt into a civil democratic state. Magdi Abdelhad:iMiddle East analyst The Islamists’ rise to power in Egypt will send shockwaves through the courts and palaces of conservative Arab kings and presidents who have tried for decades to put the lid on political Islam. But foremost among Egypt’s neighbours who watched the brotherhood’s success with increasing alarm is Israel. Cairo was the first Arab state to sign a peace treaty with Israel and the brotherhood has traditionally been vehemently opposed to that. But its opposition has softened over the years – at least publicly. It is widely believed that the Muslim Brotherhood have reassured Washington that an Islamist government in Egypt would respect the peace deal with Israel. Given also that the ruling military council will continue to have the final say on matters of war and peace, it is unlikely that the brotherhood can put that peace at risk. It is also more likely that Mr Mursi’s immediate priority will be to concentrate on Egypt’s many daunting domestic problems including rampant poverty and unemployment. Debating leaders: http://www.nytimes.com/2012/05/21/opinion/21iht-edzewail21.html?pagewanted=all From the time of Ramses II, the strong pharaoh who ruled Egypt thousands of years ago, until last year when Hosni Mubarak’s reign ended, Egyptians were never able to witness a debate over who should take over the democratic reins in the highest office of the land. Our new culture of debate, together with the election of the Parliament last December, are milestones in the history of the nation, paving a new, but rocky, path toward democracy. The open debate between the secular and religious orientations of politics was  unthinkable over the past 60 years. This new openness means the Egyptian body politic is maturing. In the end, Egyptians know that, for the first time, they can choose their future. It won’t be dictated or imposed by anyone. Army protected revo: Unlike in nearby Syria or earlier in Libya, the Egyptian Army has taken the high road and protected the revolution in its infancy. And it has been the guardian of these unprecedented transparent elections. Problems: Among the most serious problems are economic hardship, the uncertainty of the political climate and the deterioration of security — a feature that Egyptian society faces anew. These problems have been compounded over the past 15 months as each of the three main constituencies involved in the revolution — the Supreme Council of the Armed Forces (SCAF), which is in charge of the transition period; the politically liberal as well as Islamic-oriented parties; and the youth who triggered the uprising — have stumbled in one way or another. Little bloodshed: It is a hopeful sign indeed that we Egyptians are still marching forward toward democracy with relatively little bloodshed. All signs indicate that a counterrevolution is not in store for Egypt. We will not turn back to a totalitarian governing system. Perhaps the most encouraging of all is the confidence of Egyptians in their future. In Egypt, a Victory for Democracy but Fear for the Future: http://www.businessweek.com/articles/2012-06-25/in-egypt-a-victory-for-democracy-but-fear-for-the-future â€Å"So many questions remain unanswered that what can best be said is that either SCAF and the Brotherhood have worked out a deal of some sort or the political jousting has only just begun,† wrote Issandr El Amrani, a popular blogger on Egyptian politics. â€Å"Both the Brothers and  SCAF have positioned themselves in a manner in which backing down from their respective positions on the question of parliament and the Supplemental Constitutional Declaration would be a loss of face.† Tensions ran high for two weeks, when the SCAF assumed legislative responsibilities after shutting down the Islamist-controlled Parliament, announced a Supplemental Constitutional Declaration that drastically reduced presidential powers, and gave themselves the ability to veto articles of drafts of Egypt’s new constitution. They also reintroduced martial law, allowing soldiers to arrest civilians. Critics called their actions a soft coup. The Muslim Brotherhood, the most powerful political player in Egypt, has on the surface refused to accept any of these decisions, staging a sit-in in Tahrir Square and issuing aggressive statements to the media, all the while vowing to pressure the military government to rescind their declarations. It was a rare move, as the pragmatic group is more generally known for cutting deals with the regime rather than going toe-to-toe. Last week, with the possibility of a victory by Ahmed Shafiq, the other candidate in the run-off election who is widely viewed as aligned with the military, the Brotherhood showed a willingness to work with the revolutionary groups it had mostly ignored since the uprising against Mubarak. Morsi pledged to form a national salvation government to include secular politicians, Christians, and women. â€Å"The big question is: Can they build a broader, more inclusive front that can effectively challenge SCAF’s grip on power?† asks Shadi Hamid, director of research at the Brookings Doha Center. â€Å"Now that fear [of Shafiq’s victory] has passed, is there still enough that binds [the opposition groups] together? I do think the Brotherhood has at least implicitly acknowledged the mistakes of recent months and they have tried to strike a more conciliatory tone, and the recognition that they can’t do this alone because they are fighting a very challenging adversary: SCAF and the old regime.† To add to the challenges of running a country with a crumbling economy, President Morsi won with a narrow margin, garnering 51.7 percent of the vote. He had promised to be the president of all Egyptians during his first address to the nation Sunday night . â€Å"The game was being played almost like a game of poker on both sides,† says Hani Shukrallah, managing editor of the English-language online version of the Al Ahramnewspaper. â€Å"If we have reached a compromise, that’s a bit helpful for healing the deep schisms  [within] society. We have a society that’s been split down the middle, with enormous polarization. Most of the people who voted for Morsi did so out of dread [of] Shafiq.† On a side street leading to Tahrir Square on Sunday night, Ehab El Shawi led his three children to the epicenter of the celebration in the birthplace of Egypt’s uprising. Like many, he was caught between rejoicing at the idea of a new president and the reality of the office’s lack of power. â€Å"This is the first time all Egyptian people made a choice in 7,000 years to elect a normal Egyptian citizen. This is the first time we have freedom in more than 60 years,† El Shawi said happily of the first non-military president in Egypt’s history. â€Å"But we have to change all the decisions taken during the presidential elections and force the powers to ensure Dr.Morsi will have all the power to make Egypt a modern country,† he added. â€Å"We still need to take Egypt back from the old regime. †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. Timeline: Anti-Mubarak protests 2010 February – Former UN nuclear chief Mohammed ElBaradei returns to Egypt and, together with opposition figures and activists, forms a coalition for political change. ElBaradei says he might run in presidential election scheduled for 2011. 2010 March – President Mubarak undergoes gall-bladder surgery in Germany, returning to Egypt three weeks later. 2010 June – Muslim Brotherhood fails to win any seats in elections to the Shura consultative upper house of parliament; alleges vote was rigged. 2010 November – Coptic Christians clash with police in Giza over construction of church. Parliamentary polls, followed by protests against alleged vote rigging. Muslim Brotherhood fails to win a single seat, though it held a fifth of the places in the last parliament. 2011 January – 21 killed in bomb at church in Alexandria where Christians had gathered to mark the New Year. Anti-government demonstrations, apparently encouraged by Tunisian street protests whic h prompted sudden departure of President Ben Ali. President Mubarak reshuffles his cabinet but fails to placate demonstrators, whose calls for his resignation grow louder. Days later he promises to step down in September. 2011 February – President Mubarak steps down and hands power  to the army council. 2011 March – Egyptians approve package of constitutional reforms aimed at paving the way for new elections. 2011 April – Former President Mubarak and his sons, Ala and Gamal, are arrested on suspicion of corruption. 2011 April-August – Protests continue in Cairo’s Tahrir Square over slow pace of political change. Islamist groups come to the fore. Army finally disperses protestors in August. 2011 August – Former President Mubarak goes on trial in Cairo, charged with ordering the killing of demonstrators earlier in the year. 2011 October – Clashes between Coptic Christians and security forces kill 24 people. Egypt and Israel swap 25 Egyptians in Israeli custody for a US-Israeli citizen accused of spying. 2011 November – Violence in Cairo’s Tahrir square as security forces clash with protesters accusing the military of trying to keep their grip on power. Prime Minister EssamSharaf resigns in response to the unrest. Start of parliamentary elections. 2011 December – National unity government headed by new Prime Minister Kamal al-Ganzouri takes office. 2012 January – Islamist parties emerge as victors of drawn-out parliamentary elections. 2012 March – Pope Shenouda III, the veteran head of the Coptic Church, dies. 2012 April – Crisis in relations with Saudi Arabia over the Saudi detention of an Egyptian lawyer briefly threatens the substantial aid that the Saudis provide Egypt. First free presidential poll 2012 May – Muslim Brotherhood candidate Mohammed Mursi tops the first round of voting in first free presidential elections, narrowly ahead of Mubarak-era prime minister Ahmed Shafiq. Official media put turnout at a low 43%. Military leaders announce the end of the state of emergency in place since Anwar al-Sadat’s assassination in 1981, as its last renewal expires. 2012 June – Muslim Brotherhood candidate Mohammed Mursi narrowly wins presidential election.Armyvs civilian rule Court sentences ex-President Mubarak to life in prison for complicity in the killing of protesters during the 2011 uprising. 2012 July – President Mursi submits to a Supreme Court ruling that the parliamentary elections were invalid, after initially ordering parliament to meet in defiance of a military decree dissolving it in June. 2012 August – New prime ministerHishamQandil appoints a cabinet dominated by figures from the outgoing government, technocrats and Islamists, to the exclusion of secular parties. Islamist fighters attack an  army outpost in Sinai, killing 16 soldiers, and mount a brief incursion into Israel, highlighting the tenuousness of government control over the largely-lawless area. President Mursi dismisses Defence Minister Tantawi and Chief of Staff Sami Annan and strips military of say in legislation and drafting the new constitution. 2012 September – Egypt kills 32 militants and destroys 31 smuggling tunnels to Gaza in an offensive against militants who attacked troops in Sinai in August. 2012 November – Bishop Tawadros is chosen as the new pope of Egypt’s Coptic Christians. President Mursi issues a decree giving himself extensive new powers. The decree sparks angry demonstrations and is condemned by Egypt’s top judges, who accuse him of undermining the independence of the judiciary. The Islamist-dominated constituent assembly tasked with writing a new constitution approves all 234 articles of the draft constitution, which boosts the role of Islam in Egypt’s system of government. The assembly session is boycotted by liberal, left-wing and Christian members. The vote is held earlier than originally scheduled, after Egypt’s constitutional court threatened to dissolve the constituent assembly. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13315719 †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ http://www.brookings.edu/research/reports/2012/01/23-egypt-indyk Prospects for Democracy in Egypt: There’s a conventional wisdom in the United States that Arabs are incapable of sustaining a true Western-style, liberal democracy. It will take them hundreds of years to acquire a â€Å"democratic culture,† the argument goes. And in the meantime new authoritarian regimes — either Islamist or military — will replace the ones that have been overthrown in the past year and give us all a lesson in â€Å"Arab democracy.† Advocates of this view were the first to announce, with all-knowing smiles, that the Arab Spring had become an Arab Winter. When Islamist parties won free and mostly fair elections in Tunisia, Egypt and Morocco in recent months, the proponents of this view had an â€Å"I told you so† moment and they were quick to denounce anybody who said otherwise as hopelessly naive. After a prolonged hibernation, politics has broken out in Cairo, the capital of the Arab Awakenings. For the first time in six decades people are acquiring a taste for freedom and, yes, Western-style democratic politics. The issues they debate so vigorously are critical to the shape of Egypt’s democratic future: What will be the residual powers of the Egyptian military? What’s the best model for dividing powers between the Presidency and the Parliament? What revisions should be made to the Constitution to ensure democratic rule? At the same time, the newly-elected parties are busy engaging in the horse-trading necessary to coalition politics, since no one party gained a majority (the Muslim Brotherhood’s Freedom and Justice Party won around 47 percent of the vote; the Salafi Al-Nour Party won 25 percent, and a variety of liberal parties won the rest.). We were treated to an amazing sight: Salafi religious purists attempting to negotiate an alliance with liberal secularists. How did they justify such a pragmatic deal? The enemy of my enemy is my friend, one of them explained to us. They can both agree on a short-term political agenda: countering the influence of the Muslim Brotherhood and getting the army out of politics. And what about the imposition of Sharia law? The leader of the Salafi Al-Nour Party noted that his party is comfortable with the conservative nature of Egyptian society so a campaign to impose sharia law is unnecessary. They can be satisfied (at least for the time being) with the existing language of Article 2 of the Constitution which states that the â€Å"principles† of Islamic shariah will guide the state. This kind of pragmatic politics is deeply disturbing to the â€Å"Costa Salafis† — a young generation of Salafis whose makeshift headquarters is in a Costa cafe. They denounce their elders not so much for being willing to compromise, which they readily accept as part of the new politics, but of failing to articulate through â€Å"fatwas† the religious basis for those compromises. It’s as if the Salafi leadership, propelled onto the political stage for the first time, has become unplugged and feels able to do whatever is necessary in the political realm to protect its community of social  conservatives. They reminded me of the religious parties in Israel! Meanwhile, the Muslim Brotherhood is busy making its own compromises with the military and with other liberal parties that would enable its Freedom and Justice Party to build a governing and empowered coalition (at the moment, they can control the parliament but until its powers are defined in the constitution and the military hands over power, they cannot control the government). Whereas the Salafis are looking to constrain the Muslim Brotherhood, the MB is focused on how to ease fears of its intentions. After operating for eighty years in the political wilderness, the MB has learned just how fragile this moment could turn out to be. That’s why its leadership is more willing to compromise with the military than the other parties to its left and right. Consequently, the other parties fear that the MB will sell them out to the military in some sweetheart deal that compromises the revolution and their abilities to use democratic rules of the game to constrain the MB and hold the military accountable. This tension will likely manifest itself in the massive demonstrations that are expected on January 25 in Tahrir Square to commemorate the first anniversary of the Revolution. The military and the MB have called for a celebration, complete with party balloons and patriotic songs. Youth activists and some liberal parties, particularly exercised by the eighty some demonstrators who were killed by the police and the army in crackdowns in November and December last year, are calling for a demonstration against military rule. Some of the far-left revolutionary youth are calling for a campaign of violence. The way the January 25 demonstrations play out will be only one of the ways in which â€Å"square politics† and â€Å"party politics† interact in Egypt’s newly dynamic democracy. All the parties feel that they can claim legitimacy from the people’s mandates that they have received in the elections. This empowers them to stand up to the military in demanding that it leave the political arena promptly and allow Egyptian democracy to have its day. If the military focuses only on protecting its narrow interests (e.g., retaining its business interests, claiming immunity from prosecution for  past actions, demanding only responsibility for protecting the state’s borders), then a reasonable compromise can be fashioned. However, if the military insists on specifying reserve powers in the constitution and protecting its budget from civilian oversight, then the people know the way back to Tahrir Square. As one newly-elected parliamentarian put it: â€Å"We are legitimate now; the army is not.† And what about the Israel-Egypt Peace Treaty? We didn’t raise the issue — they did. It came up in most conversations in the following way: â€Å"We have been elected by the people. We’re responsible to them. The people want stability, above all. They want the police back in the streets and calm and predictability restored to their daily lives. We don’t like the way Israel treats the Palestinians. We don’t like the price that Israel pays for Egyptian gas. But we’re not going to mess with the peace treaty.† That sentiment is so widely shared that one of the heads of the Muslim Brotherhood could declare to the New York Times last week that the peace treaty is a â€Å"commitment of the state,† and therefore will be respected. The sense of responsibility that rests on the shoulders of those who would govern 87 million people is palpable. They know the severe economic straits that they will have to confront. They know that neither tourists nor foreign investment will return to Egypt unless there is a clear commitment to stability. And they know the people will not forgive them if they fail to address their basic needs for order, jobs and housing. In short, newly-elected Egyptian politicians — the Muslim Brotherhood first and foremost — understand that they have to make a choice between feeding the people and fighting Israel, and for the time being they have made a conscious choice of bread over bombs. The fact that Palestine is not a priority for the Egyptian people has been manifest since the early days of the revolution. It was underscored for me during a lecture I gave at the American University in Cairo, just off Tahrir Square. A Palestinian student, draped in a Palestinian flag, stood with a makeshift banner in silent protest at the front of the hall. Despite this prominent reminder, during the ensuing ninety-minute Q&A session with  students and journalists no-one asked a question about Palestine. To be sure, there’s always the risk that populist politicians will outbid each other in their demagoguery on the Palestinian issue, especially if Israeli-Palestinian violence flares. But Israel is particularly sensitive to this possibility and the Muslim Brotherhood is apparently signaling its Hamas branch to keep things quiet too. (With 350 trucks a day passing from Israel into Gaza, and smuggling of weapons through the tunnels continuing apace, Hamas has its own reasons for maintaining the current de facto ceasefire with Israel.) What was perhaps most striking to me, however, was the attitude of the new political class to the United States. I had expected to encounter hostility — after all the United States had been Mubarak’s staunch ally through the three decades of his Pharaohnic rule. I had assumed that the Islamist politicians in particular would be antagonistic towards American influence in post-revolutionary Egypt, just as the Iranian clerics have manifested intense antagonism towards the United States since their revolution. Yet Egypt’s Islamists all seemed keen to engage with the United States government. The Muslim Brotherhood was trying to understand President Obama’s intentions in demanding that the military hand over power to civilian (i.e. Muslim Brotherhood) rule, â€Å"expeditiously.† They weren’t sure how to deal with the fact that Bill Burns, the Deputy Secretary of State, had just met with their leadership. But one thing they were very certain about — they need U.S. economic assistance and U.S. help in mobilizing international assistance. They were therefore quite anxious to know how Congress would treat them. Because of this new U.S. Government engagement with their arch-rivals, the Salafis too are seeking American recognition. Their leaders are keen to come to Washington to explain their intentions. They even appear willing to engage with Israel to establish their bona fides — one of their leaders recently gave an interview to Israeli Army Radio.

Strategic marketing management - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 28 Words: 8479 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Statistics Essay Did you like this example? Strategic Marketing Management Introduction This course is designed to help you understand and learn advanced principles of marketing and is aimed at marketing managers, or professionals who are working in business or commerce. Who have perhaps a qualification in marketing and several years experience of working in a marketing role, or managers who would like to increase their marketing knowledge. Part of the courses assessment of learning will involve you in undertaking an assignment based on a marketing strategy plan carried out in your own company/organisation. You will be given detailed guidance and advice about this element of assessment later in this workbook. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Strategic marketing management" essay for you Create order Aims of the unit The aim of the unit is to identify and discuss key issues associated with marketing principles. The course is focused on strategic principles of marketing, which form an essential underpinning to an understanding of strategic marketing in action. The theoretical underpinning will be complemented by a series of short work-based activities. Objectives of the unit To equip you with the knowledge and skills to understand and interpret strategic marketing principles To provide you with practical experience of applying strategic marketing principles and preparing a strategic marketing plan within your own company/organisation. Learning outcomes On successful completion of this Unit you should be able to: Understand the strategic marketing process Recognise the importance of creating strategic advantage Produce a strategic marketing plan in your own company/organisation Understand the importance of developing a specific competitive position Strategic Marketing Management What does this workbook contain? This workbook contains a number of information and learning resources: Background and contextual information about strategic marketing management Key ideas, theories, concepts, structures, processes in relation to strategic marketing Recall and review and Activity points designed to engage you in reflection and action-focused thinking Case examples of strategic marketing in action Assessment You are required to write a 2,500-word assignment as follows: Prepare a strategic marketing plan for your own company/organisation, paying particular attention to creating and sustaining a competitive advantage over rival firms. Strategic Marketing Management How should this workbook be used? This workbook will direct your study throughout the learning experience. There are six sections, designed to be studied sequentially. However, a good learning technique is to refresh your learning by re-reading, so you are recommend to read back and forth between sections whenever you feel the need. Each section deals with a different topic and, together with any associated activities, practical work or further reading, is designed to require approximately 20 hours of study. The workbook uses an interactive learning approach. This is achieved through the use of self-assessment questions and activities throughout the text. These will enable you to apply the concepts presented in the workbook and explore issues that extend your knowledge and skills. Preparing to use the workbook If you are new to the study of marketing and/or this study method, then we suggest it is worth you spending some time becoming familiar with its contents and approach to learning and development. This will enhance your own understanding of key ideas in strategic marketing management, and your ability to lead and facilitate the learning of others. Strategic Marketing Management Table of contents Title Page Unit 1 The strategic marketing process Objectives 5 Drivers of change 5 Corporate strategy/ Marketing interface 7 Strategic marketing plans 8 Summary 9 Unit 2 Marketing Information Systems Objectives 10 MIS and the use of strategic intelligence 10 Summary 14 Unit 3 Strategic intent Objectives 15 Strategic intent/vision and mission 15 Goals and objectives 17 Stakeholders 18 Summary 19 Unit 4 Creating strategic advantage Objectives 20 Approaches to developing strategic advantage 20 Alliances and networks 22 Declining and hostile markets 24 Strategic wear-out 25 Summary 26 Unit 5 Developing a specific competitive position Objectives 27 Strategic alignment process 27 Innovation and new product development 28 Strategic evaluation 31 Summary 32 Unit 6 Implementation and control Objectives 33 Implementation 33 Control 35 Summary 37 Strategic Marketing Management Unit 1 The core theme of this unit is the importance of market-led strategic change to ensure organisational success. Objectives By the end of this unit you will: Be able to discuss, and give examples of drivers of change Understand the relationship between corporate and marketing strategy Know the process and structure of marketing planning and be able to discuss the differences between strategic and tactical planning Drivers of change Change is inevitable and companies that wish to maintain a market-led approach must take into consideration both cyclical and evolutionary change when developing their marketing strategies. The rate at which the external environment changes varies according to the nature of the business but increasingly all organisations are facing escalating levels of change. Change is inevitable. To survive companies need to adapt and to convert the threats caused by the changing environment into opportunities in order to avoid strategic drift. Marks and Spencer is a prime example of a company that has not adapted to the changing customer demands and as a result has lost many of its loyal customer base. Case history Drivers of change Greenhalgh (2001) identifies the following drivers of change that have created challenges for companies over the last few years: Domestic businesses of any significance have become rare. They are now global, drawing on supply chains that transcend national boundaries and serving customers worldwide Customer expectations of quality have increased and are now applied to all goods and services, rather than just luxury goods Concern for the environment has become a major item on companies agenda. They now have to consider their environmental responsibility as well as their profits. Large institutional investors are exerting their influence on how organisations are managed Start-up companies play an important role in introducing innovative products and new ideas to the marketplace. Young, technologically-competent workers are drawn to these vibrant workplaces, making it harder for other companies to recruit and retain them Strategic Marketing Management Activity 1.1 Consider thedrivers of change outlined above. Identify the impact of these factors on your own company/organisation. What is strategy? The term strategy is probably one of the most used and often misunderstood terms in business. There is no universal definition of strategy and yet it is used extensively. Strategy has the same meaning whether we are discussing corporate, marketing, promotional or even advertising strategy: it is concerned with how we might achieve our objectives. The difference between each type of strategy relates to the level at which the strategy is being developed. Corporate strategy according to Johnson and Scholes (1999), is: concerned with what types of business the company as a whole should be in and is therefore concerned with decisions of scope whereas marketing strategy aims to transform corporate objectives into a competitive market position. The main role of marketing strategy is to differentiate products/services from those of competitors by meeting the needs of customers more effectively. Therefore, according to Drummond and Ensor (2001) marketing strategy can be characterised by: Analysing the business environment and defining customer needs Matching activities to customer needs Implementing programmes to achieve a competitive position relative to competitors Strategic management consists of three elements: Strategic analysis concerned with answering the question where are we now? This involves analysing the external environment, internal resources and capabilities and stakeholder expectations Strategic choice what are the options available and which is the most attractive? Strategic implementation often the most overlooked of strategy. It is concerned with allocating resources and turning the plans into action. This process can be as equally well applied to marketing strategy. Strategic Marketing Management The corporate strategy/marketing interface It is impossible to discuss marketing strategy without first putting it into the context of corporate planning. The relationship between corporate planning and marketing planning can best be explained by figure 1.1 below. It is helpful to think of these decisions sitting in a hierarchy with corporate planning at the top and marketing planning below it. The diagram also illustrates that, alongside marketing planning, plans should be developed for other functional areas of the business such as human resources management (HRM), logistics, and operations. The vision and mission will drive the overall direction of the company and the functional areas of business will all work towards achieving the corporate objectives. The vision and mission will be discussed in Unit 3 Strategic intent. Strategic Marketing Management Marketing strategy is concerned with three elements customers, competitors and internal corporate issues as illustrated in Figure 1.2. Strategic marketing management has three major phases: firstly, strategic analysis in order to answer the question where are we now? This will include external analysis of customers, competitors and the macro environment and internal analysis of corporate capabilities; secondly formulation of strategy in terms of creating and evaluating options and thirdly implementation where the strategies are translated into action. The three stages are not mutually exclusive and are not necessarily linear. In fact it is expected that there will be some feedback and amendments as the process progresses. Strategic marketing plans A strategic marketing plan is the means by which the strategy is communicated within the organisation. The structure and content of a strategic marketing plan will vary considerable between organisations. However, normally the following components are included: Current situation external and internal analysis Objective setting Strategy formulation Marketing programmes Implementation issues Control measures Strategic Marketing Management There is no one best format for a strategic marketing plan and organisations will develop their own frameworks that match the needs of their companies. Strategic marketing plans need to generate action and not just be filed away. They should also be sufficiently flexible to take into account the changing environment. Activity 1.2 Read a copy of your own organisations strategic marketing plan. Give your opinion on whether the strategies outlined in it have been actioned. Has the plan shown sufficient flexibility to take into account the changing environment. If the answer to 3. is no, how could the plan have been improved? Summary In this unit we have seen that: Organisations operate in a dynamic environment and therefore they have to take into consideration those external influences that will impact on their business. These influences are often referred to as drivers of change. In market-oriented organisations it is likely that marketing will be the largest contributor to corporate strategy. Corporate strategy is concerned with what types of business the company as a whole should be in, i.e. the scope of the business. Marketing strategy is concerned with transforming corporate objectives into a competitive market position. A strategic marketing plan is the vehicle by which the marketing strategy is communicated within the organisation. The structure and format of a strategic marketing plan will vary considerably between organisations. There is no one best structure. Strategic Marketing Management Unit 2 Marketing Information System (MIS) Introduction The focus of this unit is to understand how the use of marketing intelligence and key marketing information can assist marketing managers to produce an effective marketing information system which will assist marketing decision makers to return higher profits. Objectives Upon successful completion of this unit you will: Understand the strategic use of information Understand how a MIS can assist marketing managers to make key decisions Marketing information is a key requirement for any strategic marketing plan and therefore the development of effective management and marketing information systems is an important task for marketers. Senior marketing managers should not become too heavily involved in the details of the MIS and marketing research but should be concentrating on how to utilize the information in helping to understand the market and develop successful marketing programmes. Definition A Management Information System consists of people, equipment and procedures to gather, sort, analyze, evaluate and distribute timely and accurate information to marketing decision makers. The MIS begins and ends with marketing managers. First, it interacts with them to assess their information needs. Next, it develops the needed information from internal company records, marketing intelligence activities and the marketing research process. Information analysis processes the information to make it more useful. Finally, the MIS distributes information to managers in the right form at the right time to help them in marketing planning, implementation and control. Developing information The information needed by marketing managers comes from internal company records, marketing intelligence and marketing research. The information analysis system then processes this information to make it more useful for managers. Strategic Marketing Management Internal records Most marketing managers use internal records and reports regularly, especially for making day to day planning, implementation and control decisions. Internal records information consists of information gathered from sources within the company to evaluate marketing performance and to detect marketing problems and opportunities. The companys accounting department prepares financial statements and keeps detailed records of sales, orders, costs, and cash flows. The customer service department provides information on customer satisfaction or service problems. Research studies done for one department may provide useful information for several others. Managers can use information gathered from these and other sources within the company to evaluate performance and to detect problems and opportunities. Information from internal records is usually quicker and cheaper to get than information from other sources, but it also presents some problems. Because internal information was collected for other purposes, it may be incomplete or in the wrong form for making marketing decisions. For example, accounting department sales and cost data used for preparing financial statements need adapting for use in evaluating product, sales force, or channel performance. In addition, the many different areas of a large company produce great amounts of information, and keeping track of it all is difficult. The marketing information system must gather, organize, process and index this mass of information so that managers can find it easily and obtain it quickly. Marketing intelligence Marketing intelligenceis everyday information about developments in the marketing environment that helps managers prepare and adjust marketing plans. The marketing intelligence system determines the intelligence needed, collects it by searching the environment and delivers it to marketing managers who need it. Marketing intelligence comes from many sources. Much intelligence is derived from the companys personnel executives, engineers and scientists, purchasing agents and the sales force. However, company people are often busy and fail to pass on key information. It is important to realise that staff are intelligence gatherers, and they need to be trained to spot new developments and urged to report intelligence back to the company. The company must also persuade suppliers, resellers and customers to pass along important intelligence. Some information on competitors comes from what they say about themselves in annual reports, speeches, press releases and advertisements. The company can also learn about competitors from what others say about them in business publications and at trade shows. Or the company can watch what competitors do buying and analyzing competitors products, monitoring their sales and checking for new patents. Strategic Marketing Management Companies also buy intelligence information from outside suppliers. Dun and Bradstreet is the worlds largest research company with branches in forty countries and a turnover of $1.26bn. Its largest subsidiary is Nielsen who sell details on brand shares, retail prices and percentages of stores stocking different brands. Marketing intelligence can work not only for, but also against a company. Kellogg used to allow the public to tour its plants but recently closed its newly upgraded plant to outsiders to prevent competitors from getting intelligence on its high tech equipment. Some companies set up an office to collect and circulate marketing intelligence. The staff scans relevant publications, summarizes important news and sends news bulletins to marketing managers. It develops a file of intelligence information and helps managers to evaluate new information. These services greatly improve the quality of information available to marketing managers. To summarise it is clear that a MIS has four main components: Internal records there is a wealth of information available within the organisation and it is essential that it is organised in such a way as to facilitate its usage. This may include sales data, customer orders, prices, stock levels, customer complaints, etc. Marketing research this is concerned with the systematic collection of information that is specific to a particular problem. For example, a piece of marketing research may be commissioned to investigate attitudes to a new advertising campaign. Marketing intelligence this may include any information that is collected on an ad hoc basis, such as competitor intelligence gleaned from the press, customer trends, registered patents etc. Marketing decision support systems the processes that convert the data into usable information. For example, statistical tools or modeling techniques. Activity 2.1 Write a short summary detailing how a MIS is used to support management decision making in your own company/organisation. Strategic Marketing Management Intelligence gathering: checking out competitors Competitive intelligence gathering has grown dramatically as more and more companies need to know what their competitors are doing. It is essential that managers are not myopic and spend time amassing information about their major competitors. Techniques that companies use to collect their own marketing intelligence fall into four major groups. Getting information from recruits and competitors employees Companies can obtain intelligence through job interviews or from conversations with competitors employees. According to Fortune magazine: Companies send engineers to conferences and trade shows to question competitors technical people. Often conversations start innocently but engineers and scientists often brag about surmounting technical challenges, in the process divulging sensitive information. Getting information from people who do business with competitors Key customers can keep the company informed about competitors and their products. This information can be vital and can prevent a company from being left behind on product launches or price discounting strategies dreamed up by competing companies. Intelligence can also be gathered by infiltrating customers business operations. Companies can provide their engineers free of charge to customers. The close collaboration the engineers on loan enjoy with the customers design staff often enable them to learn what new products competitors are developing. Getting information from published materials and public documents Keeping track of seemingly meaningless published information can provide competitor intelligence. For example, the types of people sought in job adverts can indicate something about a competitors new strategies and products. Getting information by observing competitors or analyzing physical evidence Competitors can get to know competitors better by buying their products or examining other physical evidence. An increasingly important form of competitive intelligence is benchmarking, taking apart competitors products and imitating or improving on their best features. Companies should take advantage of publicly available information but they should avoid practices that might be considered illegal or unethical. Strategic Marketing Management With all the legitimate intelligence sources now available, a company does not have to break the law or accepted codes of ethics to get good intelligence. Activity 2.2 Write a short synopsis of how your own company/ organisation gathers intelligence on its competitors. Summary This unit has demonstrated that: Marketing intelligence is an essential component of an effective MIS Internal records are a vital source of information for marketing managers Senior marketing managers should be concerned with how to use the information generated from the MIS rather than with the details of the system Intelligence gathering can be carried out in various ways but it is important not to break the law or accepted codes of ethics Strategic Marketing Management Unit 3 Strategic intent Introduction The focus of this unit is to consider the aspirations and future plans of an organisation, and the components of a suitable mission statement and development of appropriate objectives. Objectives Upon successful completion of this unit you will: Be able to define the terms strategic intent / vision and mission statement Know the components of good mission statements Be able to discuss the development of appropriate objectives Strategic intent/vision and mission Strategic intent refers to the aspirations of an organisation rather than just its current activity. According to Aaker, strategic intent provides: A long-term drive for advantage that can be essential to success. It provides a model that helps break the mould, moving a firm away from simply doing the same things a bit better and working a bit harder than the year before. It has the capability to elevate and extend an organisation, helping it reach levels it would not otherwise attain. It is apparent that many organisations that have an appropriate and well-constructed vision are focused on the future and ways of continually attaining sustainable competitive advantage. A vision can help guide strategy, identify and maintain core competencies and provide inspiration and motivation to its managers and its employees by providing them with a sense of purpose. Hamel and Pralahad (1989) suggested that strategic intent combines: A dream that energizes the company (i.e. acts as a motivator) Implied stretch, (looks for new opportunities rather than relying on existing businesses) A sense of direction A sense of discovery Coherence to plans Definition Strategic intent/vision: The desired future state or aspiration of the organization. (Johnson and Scholes, 1999, p.243) Strategic Marketing Management Mission statements A mission statement is concerned with providing daily guidance rather than a vision of the future. According to Piercy (2000), in order for mission statements to contribute anything they must: Reflect an organisations core competencies and how it intends to apply and sustain them Be closely tied to the critical success factors in the marketplace Tell employees, managers, suppliers and partners what contribution is required from them to deliver the promise of value to the customer Definition Mission statement: A generalised statement of the overriding purpose of the organisation. (Johnson and Scholes, 1999,p241) Mission statements are influenced by a number of factors, such as the resource availability, the external environment, the core competencies of the organisation and the current preferences of its current chief executive and senior management. The extent to which the mission statement serves its purpose is influenced not only by the quality and relevance of the mission but also by how it is communicated to staff and other stakeholders. A successful mission statement is one that is wholly embraced and believed by staff. Just having a mission statement is insufficient, the staff must also buy into the idea. Drummond and Ensor (2001) suggest that successful mission statements should demonstrate the following characteristics: Credibility it must be realistic and believable Uniqueness not bland and generic Specific capabilities embrace core capabilities Aspirational needs to motivate individuals Activity 3.1 Write a brief critique of your own companys mission statement in the light of the above characteristics Strategic Marketing Management Goals and objectives The vision and mission provide guidance on the overall direction of an organisation. Objectives, whether corporate or marketing, are the expected outcomes of the strategy. Goals are often regarded as less specific than objectives and more difficult to measure. However, it is normally accepted that objectives should be SMART: Specific Measurable- expressed in quantifiable terms Acceptable to stakeholders Realistic- attainable Time bound- achievable within a certain time frame Definition Goals and objectives Goal general statement of aim or purpose Objective Quantification (if possible) or more precise statement of the goal (Johnson and Scholes, 1999,p14)) Activity 3.2 Critically review your companys key objectives using the SMART method There are many different types of objectives with which an organisation should be concerned. Drucker (1954) identified the following: Market standing e.g. market share objectives Innovation e.g. number of new products launched Productivity e.g. inputs compared with outputs such as increased sales whilst maintaining the same number of sales staff Physical and financial resources relating to the use of resources Profitability e.g. return on investment Manager performance and development performance criteria Employee performance and attitude loyalty Public responsibility e.g. reduce dependency on fossil fuels It is likely that many organisations will place greater weighting on some areas than others. For example, the Co-operative bank places great emphasis on their responsibility to the public in the form of their ethical banking policy. There may be a danger that some companies are preoccupied with productivity objectives and trying to improve the efficiency of existing activities without actually questioning whether they are doing the right things. Stakeholders A key consideration when developing strategic direction relates to an organisations various stakeholder groups. Stakeholders refer to all the different groups of individuals that are influenced and/or have influence on the activities of an organisation. Stakeholders have different expectations and can exert varying levels of influence over the organisation. It is important that organisations have a good understanding of the varying needs of their various stakeholder groups. There are three main groups of stakeholders: Internal stakeholders (employees, management) Connected stakeholders (suppliers, distributors, shareholders, customers) External stakeholders (community, government, pressure groups) Definition Stakeholders: Those individuals or groups who depend on the organisation to fulfil their own goals and on whom, in turn the organisation depends. (Johnson and Scholes, 1999, p213). The following figure illustrates an outline stakeholder map. Customers Banks/sources of finance Suppliers The local community Distributors Society at large Managers Employees Activity 3.3 Stakeholder map Draw a stakeholder map for your own organisation and consider the varying needs of each group and the implications on the organisations strategic direction. How does your organisation manage the differing expectations of each group? Strategic Marketing Management Summary This unit has shown that: Strategic intent relates to the aspirations of an organisation and is sometimes referred to as the organisations vision. An appropriate and well constructed vision can help guide strategy, identify and maintain core competencies and can act as a motivator for staff by providing them with a sense of purpose. Mission statements are more concerned with providing daily guidance rather than a vision of the future. They should reflect an organisations core competencies, relate to the critical success factors in the market and also inform employees and other stakeholders what contribution is required from them to deliver value to the customer. Objectives are a statement of what an organisation wants to achieve and wherever possible, they should be SMART. Stakeholders are a key consideration when developing strategic direction. Stakeholders consist of all those individuals who are influenced by the activities of an organisation and include internal stakeholders (employees and management), connected stakeholders (suppliers, distributors, shareholders and customers) and external stakeholders (community, government and pressure groups). Strategic Marketing Management Unit 4 Creating strategic advantage Introduction The focus of this unit is to look closely at how companies can differentiate themselves from their competitors by using a range of strategies. Objectives Upon successful completion of this unit you will: Understand the term strategic advantage Be able to describe, discuss and apply Porters generic strategies Understand the various types of alliances and networks, be able to discuss the motivations for and the factors that should be considered when establishing such relationships Be able to discuss the alternative strategies for declining and hostile markets Understand the concept of and the reasons for, strategic wear-out Approaches to developing strategic advantage One of the greatest challenges for any organisation is developing a coherent and appropriate strategy that builds on their internal resources and capabilities, capitalizes on external opportunities and will provide a distinct competitive advantage. Competitive advantage is the process of identifying a unique and enduring basis from which to compete. Porters generic strategies Porter (1980), a major contributor to the discussion of competitive strategy, suggests that there are three generic types of strategy that can provide organisations with a competitive advantage: Cost leadership Differentiation Focus Figure 4.1 illustrates the alternative sources of competitive advantage and highlights the options open to companies in terms of defining their source of advantage and their competitive scope (i.e. targeting a broad or narrow range of customers). Strategic Marketing Management Strategic advantage Broad industry -wide Strategic target Narrow specific segment Uniqueness perceivedLow cost position Differentiation Overall cost leadership Focused differentiation Focused cost leadership Figure 4.1 Cost leadership One possible source of competitive advantage lies in the ability of a firm to be the lowest cost producer in the industry. Firms pursuing a cost leadership strategy would typically concentrate on continually striving to reduce their cost base and improving efficiencies. This could be achieved through activities such as achieving economies of scale, cutting costs, global sourcing and using technology to develop more efficient means of production. Retailers, specialising in a narrow product range that seek out of town locations, (such as PC World) are able to achieve economies of scale and therefore pursue a cost leader strategy. Cost leadership can be a difficult strategy to sustain in the long-term due to the threat of competitors that may have even lower cost structures. For example, the U.K. based discount retailer Kwik Save was threatened by the entry of German -based Aldi and Lidl into the low cost retail market and was subsequently sold off due to operating losses. Differentiation Companies pursuing a differentiation strategy strive to offer products or services that are regarded as superior to those offered by competitors. The uniqueness of the product enables companies to charge a premium price. For this strategy to be successful customers must perceive that the higher price is justified in terms of the additional features and benefits they accrue. For example, Gap sell childrens clothing at a significantly higher price than other High Street retailers. Focus Cost leadership and differentiation strategies both target a broad market. In contrast, a focus strategy concentrates on a narrow segment of the market that is particularly attractive. A focus strategy, sometimes referred to as a niche strategy, is based on the assumption that these niche markets can be served more effectively and efficiently than by companies that are competing more broadly. Companies pursuing a focus strategy can adopt either a cost focus or a differentiation focus strategy. Strategic Marketing Management Cost focus Companies pursuing a cost focus strategy are concentrating o a niche market but are also concentrating on reducing costs. EasyJet has adopted a cost focus strategy, which has been very successful. It has concentrated on a narrow segment of the population and has driven costs down by direct bookings and removing all the peripheral services associated with air travel, such as on-board meals. Differentiation focus This is concerned with producing superior products for narrow market segments, such as Rolex watches and Ferrari cars. Activity 4.1 Using Porters model, select an example of a company that pursues a cost leadership strategy. To what extent does this model help companies to identify their competitive advantage? Alliances and networks Increasingly businesses are recognising that to gain a sustainable competitive advantage they may have to enter into alliances with other firms. Definition Strategic alliance: Business associations in which knowledge and resources are shared to the benefit of the partners Motivations for companies to enter into strategic partnerships include: Desire to exploit economies of scale Desire to create new knowledge and increase level of innovation Reduce risk Enter new geographical markets Exploit other assets and competencies for example Easyjet entered into a strategic partnership with Mercedes to provide cars for their car rental venture. Strategic Marketing Management Types of alliances There are many types of alliances ranging from an informal buying co-operative to a joint venture where a legally separate company is formed. The following table (Table 4.1) illustrates the major types of alliances. Table 4.1 Type of Characteristics Examples Alliance_________________________________________________________________ Acquisitions Includes both co-operative and Glaxo Wellcome merged with and mergers hostile takeovers. Often motivated SmithKline Beecham in 2000 to by desire to increase efficiencies form GlaxoSmithKline, the and to create synergy largest pharmaceutical company in Europe.Consortia and Involves independent organisations Eurofighter, a European joint ventures setting up specific projects or collaboration consisting of four ventures with other firms. Partner companies-BAE Systems (UK), Alenia (Italy), CASA (Spain), and DASA (Germany). The rationale was to reduce risk by sharing the significant development costs.Contract or Contractual agreements Franchising is utilized by a wide Licensing where the right to a product is variety of companies such as legally signed over to another McDonalds, Ford dealerships, Hertz party. This may take the form of car rental, and the Body Shop. franchising or sub-contracting.Networks Informal agreements based on Many airlines have informal code co-operati on rather than contractual sharing agreements that allow agreements. passengers to use several different airlines on the same ticket. Activity 4.2 Alliance examples Scan the quality press, such as the Financial Times and journals such as Marketing and Marketing Week and identify examples of strategic alliances and partnerships. Classify these according to Table 4.1 and identify the motivations for each of these partnerships. To what extent do you think they will help to gain a competitive advantage? Strategic Marketing Management Declining and hostile markets Many firms are faced not with healthy markets but ones that are mature or even declining. In this situation, many organisations assume that the most suitable strategy is one of strategic withdrawal. This is not necessarily the only strategy available to them and these markets can often be a source of opportunity if the right strategy is selected. Declining markets A declining market may be as a result of a variety of factors, often caused by changes in the external environment, for example: Development of new technology such as the Internet may replace traditional offline buying habits Changes in government policy such as regulations relating to financial services Growing interest in shopping on-line may prompt a decline for traditional retailers There are several alternative strategies for firms facing a declining market: Revitalise market e.g. Lucozade changed its emphasis to a sports energy drink instead of a drink for people feeling poorly. Milk or harvest e.g. Sony continued to milk the market for Walkman whilst investing in Playstations Divest or liquidate e.g. W.H. Smith divested Do -It -All in the light of intense competition from larger players such as B Q. Hostile markets Hostile markets are those with low margins, intense competition and over-capacity. Hostile markets may result from a declining demand or an increase in competition. Therefore they may even be growing markets. Strategic Marketing Management The following table (table 4.2) identifies six stages of hostility. Stages of hostility Explanation Margin pressure This is often due to over-capacity and therefore many competitors seek profitable segments. Share shifts This may result from acquisitions or loss of share by overpriced competition. Product proliferation Competition try to compete for market share by improving customer value through product proliferation. Self-defeating cost reduction Due to declining margins firms may concentrate on cost reduction, which in turn may lead to decline in product or service quality. Consolidation and shakeout This may consist of down sizing, followed by mergers and acquisitions and finally the formation of international players. Rescue Many markets can emerge from hostility, often through consolidation with fewer competitor present in the market Strategic wear-out Definition Strategic wear-out: Strategic wear-out occurs when an organisation no longer meets customer needs and the pursed strategy is surpassed by competitors. (Drummond and Ensor, 2001). There are many examples of companies that once had a successful strategy but have failed to adapt to the changing environment and have therefore suffered from strategic wear-out. Marks Spencer is a prime example of a company that is currently trying to overcome the problems of strategic wear-out. According to Davidson (1997) there are a number of reasons for strategic wear-out: Market changes: changing customer needs developments in distribution such as the Internet Competition from either existing or new competitors Internal factors: insufficient investment lack of management control of company costs misguided changes to winning strategy In order to avoid strategic wear-out companies should: undertake regular and detailed reviews of each element that makes up the external environment identify the ways in which these elements are changing evaluate the impact of these changes on the organisation undertake an internal audit to establish the appropriateness of actions both currently and for the future to ensure that customer needs continue to be met Activity 4.3 Identify two examples of firms whose strategies are suffering strategic wear-out. What factors have led to this strategic drift? To what extent do you think this could be avoided? What, if any, actions are the companies taking to try to rectify their position? Summary In this unit we have seen that: one of the greatest challenges for any organisation is to develop a coherent and appropriate strategy that builds on their internal resources, exploits external opportunities and provides a distinct competitive advantage Porter suggests that there are three generic forms of strategies that can provide a competitive advantage: cost leadership, differentiation or focus. Those companies that fail to consistently pursue one of these generic strategies will become stuck in the middle. Strategic alliances are increasingly being regarded as a means of gaining a sustainable competitive advantage Companies that once had a successful strategy but have failed to adapt to the changing environment are in danger of suffering from strategic wear-out. This refers to a lack of strategic fit between an organisations strategy and the markets needs. Strategic Marketing Management Unit 5 Developing a specific competitive position The main theme of this unit is how organisations can use innovation and new product development to gain a sustainable advantage over their competitors. Objectives Upon successful completion of this unit you will: Understand and be able to describe the strategic alignment process Understand the role of innovation in achieving a competitive advantage and the methods of encouraging an innovative culture Understand the criteria by which strategies can be evaluated Strategy alignment process Strategy can be regarded as the matching of an organisations resources and capabilities to the environment in which it operates. The process is sometimes referred to as strategic fit. It is a key step in the strategy development process and ensures that by matching markets, channels and customers with internal assets and competencies a sustainable competitive advantage is developed. It is not enough to just identify customer needs. The company must have the necessary skills and resources to meet these needs. This process is referred to as the strategic alignment process and is illustrated in table 5.1 as follows: Strategic Marketing Management Table 5.1 Stage Process Explanation 1 Identify utilizable assets Assets could include brands, property, patents, finance, and relationships and scale advantages. 2 Utilizable competencies Competencies relate to skills and may include marketing (e.g. ability to develop new and innovative products), selling (e.g. customer relationship management), operations (e.g. inventory control). 3 Select and rank business opportunities in terms of attractiveness This involves identifying market opportunities and then developing criteria by which to measure the attractiveness of each option. Portfolio analysis can be used to identify the most attractive strategies. (This will be discussed later in greater detail in relation to segmentation.) 4 Match internal assets (stage 1) and competencies(stage 2) with market opportunities(stage 3) This process will identify the areas in which it will be most effective for a company to compete. 5 Identify any assets or competencies that need to be strengthened During the strategic alignment process it may be that market opportunities are identified but that firm lacks the ideal assets and competencies to capitalize on this opportunity. A firm may decide to develop or acquire the necessary competencies to exploit this market (e.g. entering into a strategic alliance, employing new staff, acquiring brands). Innovation and new product development Innovation has been referred to as the lifeblood of an organisation. A company must continuously seek real product and marketing improvements in order to satisfy customers and fend off competitors. Innovation is most often associated with new product development. However, this is only part of the equation and innovation relates to changes in products, processes and practices. Jansen (2000) defines innovation as: The commercialization of something new, which may be: A new technology A new application in the form of a new product, service or process A new market or market segment A new organisational form or a new management approach Or a combination of two or more of these elements. Strategic Marketing Management Many organisations are striving to develop organisational cultures that encourage innovation. For example, in 1999, Procter and Gamble announced a major internal restructuring, sacking 13% of the workforce to streamline management and speed up decision -making. Innovation teams were set up within the company and the management of new ideas was passed to new business managers rather than existing businesses. These changes resulted in the successful launch of Swiffer, Febreze and Dryed. Innovation is not the same as invention. There are very few inventors that have successfully invented a commercial business opportunity, notable exceptions being James Dyson, Bill Hewlett and Dave Packard. Inventors rarely develop innovations that change markets, make fortunes, and change the way the world operates. Innovation is led by commercial application, whilst invention is led by the scientific process. Activity 5.1 Critically review your own companys use of innovation, with reference to two or more concrete examples. New product development (NPD) It is apparent that new product development is a key aspect of the innovation process. The reality of new product launches is that the majority are not unique or novel. Many of the NPD launches are variations of existing products. Booz et al (1982) identified four types of new products: New to the world New product lines or line additions Product revision Reposition There is much risk attached to new product development. Research in the USA found that less than 1% of products launched in 1998 achieved $100 million of sales in their first year. More than two thirds failed in their first year. Failure of new products There are a number of reasons that may account for the high failure rate of new products. Drummond and Ensor (2001) suggest the following: Under-investment Failure to deliver customer benefits Forecasting errors Internal politics Industry response To this list could also be added: Lack of management enthusiasm The NPD process is too slow and beaten to market by competitors Process Traditionally companies adopted a linear process to NPD, as illustrated in Figure 5.1 below. However, it is still a useful framework for ensuring that all the major factors have been reviewed and considered. Firms are facing the dilemma of ensuring that new product ideas are assessed rigorously but at the same time getting new ideas to market first. The challenge facing organisations is to develop NPD processes that are still rigorous and yet enable firms to get to market quickly. Drummond and Ensor (2001) suggest the following strategies for optimising the NPD process. Multi-functional teams- to ensure a balanced viewpoint Completeness and evaluation complete all stages of the NPD process Customer involvement used to evaluate possible ideas and productsParallel processing- undertaking activities concurrently Strategic direction- links must be made between corporate strategy and NPDKnowledge management- the transfer of knowledge is essential to help develop a learning organisation Activity 5.2 Comment critically on the strengths and weaknesses of the process that your own company goes through prior to the launch of a new product or service Strategic evaluation Once an organisation has identified the various strategic options available, it is then necessary to evaluate them in order to identify the best strategy that will gain the best source of competitive advantage. In reality many companies do not adopt formal processes and instead rely on gut feel. However, there are a number of approaches that can be adopted to assess strategies. Criteria Johnson and Scholes (1999) suggest a list of criteria by which companies can evaluate alternative strategies: Suitability does it Exploit strengths and weaknesses? Rectify weaknesses? Deflect threats? Seize opportunities? Feasibility can it be implemented? Sufficient finances? Deliver the goods? Deal with competitors responses? Access to technology etc.? Time? Acceptability: To stakeholders? Legislation and environmental impact? Strategic Marketing Management Summary In this unit we have seen that: Successful strategies rely on strategic fit between an organisations resources and capabilities and the environment in which it is operating. This process is referred to as the strategic alignment process. Innovation is more than just developing new products. It relates to changes in products, processes and practices. Innovation has been referred to as the lifeblood of an organisation and companies are increasingly looking for ways to improve their level of innovativeness The new product development process has traditionally been regarded as a linear process. In order to speed up the development of new products it is increasingly being recognised that companies have to develop techniques such as parallel processing to increase the pace of development. Firms need to concentrate on creating the right organisational conditions and culture in order to facilitate effective innovation. Once an organisation has identified various strategic options it must evaluate them in order to identify the best strategy. Some firms may rely on gut feel whilst others develop criteria by which to evaluate the alternative strategies. Strategic Marketing Management Unit 6 Implementation and control This is the final unit in the module and its main theme is the challenge of implementing a strategic plan and transforming the plan into commercial reality. The implementation of plans is probably one of the most difficult tasks facing marketers. Control is also a vital component of any planning process. It is necessary in order to measure the success of the plan and to also inform future strategies. Objectives Upon successful completion of this unit you will: Be aware of , and be able to discuss, barriers to implementation of marketing plans Know the dimensions of an effective marketing feedback and control system Identify suitable control systems for measuring the success of plans Implementation Marketing implementation is concerned with translating marketing plans into action. The marketing plan is the vehicle for communicating the strategy within the organisation and addresses the issue of what should happen and why it should happen. Implementation is concerned with how the strategy should be carried out, who is to be responsible, when things will take place and where things will happen. Too often in organisations the implementation stage is overlooked and as a result a good strategy can fail. It is important therefore that organisations devote as much time and energy to the implementation of plans as they do to creating marketing strategies. Strategy success There are two factors that contribute to the success of a strategy: The strategy itself The ability to implement the strategy Bonoma (1984) suggested that the various combinations of these factors would lead to four alternative business outcomes, as illustrated in Figure 6.1: Strategy Execution Skills Good Bad Appropriate Chance Success Chance Problem Failure Figure 6.1 Strategic Marketing Management Success This is the most desirable situation where an effective strategy is well implemented. Chance In this situation the strategy is weak. However, if the strategy is well implemented there could be a chance that it will be successful. Problem This occurs often. A strong strategy has been developed but is poorly executed, resulting in problems. It is interesting to note from this model that it is probably better to have an inappropriate strategy that is effectively implemented than a good strategy that is poorly implemented. Failure This is the least desirable outcome a strategy is neither appropriate nor effectively implemented. Obviously this is a simplified model that will vary depending on the specific situation and the degree to which strategies are inappropriate. However, it does present a graphical representation of the importance of implementation in the planning process. Activity 6.1 Refer to figure 6.1 and consider which quadrant your own companys marketing strategies would normally fall into. State the reasons for your selection. The major problem with implementation of plans lies in the failure of companies to manage change successfully. Inevitably a new strategy is going to result in the need for change. Many people are resistant to change because they are familiar with the status quo and fear the consequences of change. Therefore any new marketing strategy is going to be met with suspicion, unless the company can engender a culture that not only accepts change but also welcomes it. Marketing managers need to be aware of the internal barriers that exist, and then need to develop strategies to overcome these barriers. Organisations need to learn how to effectively manage change. Activity 6.2 Critically review the internal barriers to successful implementation that exist in your own company. What barriers exist, why are they present and how might they be overcome? Strategic Marketing Management Control The marketing planning process would not be complete without some form of evaluation of performance and assessment as to whether the marketing objectives have been achieved. There are three main components of control: Setting targets/objectives against which performance can be measured. Measurement of performance Corrective action A key aspect of control is that it should lead to corrective action. Failure to meet targets may be as a result of unrealistic objectives (and therefore targets may have to be reviewed) or poor performance of individuals (and therefore additional training, advice etc. may have to be offered). If targets are met then individuals should be rewarded and objectives may also have to be reviewed for the future. Definition Control: Control consists of verifying whether targets have been achieved. Its purpose is to identify any problems or errors in order to rectify them and prevent reoccurrence. It operates on everything things, people and actions. Evaluation of marketing plans can also be used to inform future marketing decisions. Therefore, the planning and control cycle is a continuous feedback loop. Marketing performance control Kotler et al. (1999) identify four main types of controls for marketing activity: Annual planning this involves evaluating the performance of the previous years marketing activities, such as sales, market share, customer satisfaction. Profitability profitability is a major concern of any marketer. Profitability can be calculated not only by product but also by distribution channel, market segment or even individual customer. Efficiency control this is concerned with optimisation of assets, for example, return on promotional spend. Figure 6.2 below illustrates some of the various measures that can be used to evaluate the marketing mix. Strategic control it is imperative that marketing activity is ultimately helping to achieve organisational goals. This can be undertaken in the format of the marketing audit that will review all marketing activity Strategic Marketing Management Figure 6.2 Activity 6.3 Control mechanisms Identify your own companys control mechanisms. Classify them according to financial and non-financial controls. How effective are these controls in helping to improve the marketing planning process? What recommendations would you make to improve the control process? Strategic Marketing Management Summary In this unit we have seen that: Marketing implementation is concerned with translating marketing strategy into action. This very important stage is often overlooked by many organisations. In some cases plans fail, not because they are inappropriate plans, but because they are poorly implemented. The development of an organisational culture that welcomes change is a key ingredient in the successful implementation of marketing plans. Managers need to be familiar with the process of change and the impact it has on people in order to effectively manage change. The final stage of the marketing planning process is the development of control mechanisms to monitor the success of marketing plans. The outputs of these measurements should be linked to action, in the form of either corrective action or the revisiting of marketing objectives. The results can also be used to inform future decisions.